"Unveiling the Two Yahwehs: How Ancient Jewish Binitarianism Shaped Early Christian Christology and Why It Still Matters"

It’s utterly baffling and frankly embarrassing that one of the most prominent PhD’s in Reformed Baptist circles, in the escalating crusade against Michael Heiser, recently tweeted: “T or F: “[T]he biblical writers conceived of two Yahwehs….” (a quote from Heiser) which was immediately followed up with, “The two or more Yahwehs thesis is not Christian. It might be an ignorant claim by a Christian, but it’s not historically Christian in a creedal or biblical sense."

Guys, you are just historically wrong and the more you push against this, the worse it makes you look. This is not a novelty of Michael Heiser. The following is an incomplete working Annotated Bibliography (in alphabetical order, minus anything from Heiser, of which there is a lot) of works that directly address how either the biblical writers conceived of two Yahwehs and/or how the early Christians used this exact theology to teach Jews how Jesus was the Second Power in Heaven (i.e. the second Yahweh) until the Rabbis of the Second Century AD outlawed this theology, turning their own religion forever after into a Unitarian monotheism. Once upon a time, true scholarship didn’t care if a writer wasn’t in their circles, and that is precisely one of the biggest problems going on here. Men refuse to read outside their own party lines, except viciously, to critique anything theological they find heretical, rather than reading with virtue and charitably—looking to learn what they can about something they likely know little to nothing about, especially a thing like this which so massively informs, complements, and enriches own theology as Christians about Jesus.

Barker, Margaret. The Great Angel: A Study of Israel’s Second God. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1992. 

Relevance: Barker argues that ancient Israelite religion included a belief in a second divine figure, often called the "Great Angel" or a second Yahweh, who was distinct yet unified with the high God. She draws on texts like the Book of Enoch and Deuteronomy 32 to show how this figure was worshipped alongside Yahweh, influencing early Christian views of Jesus. Her work directly supports the "two Yahwehs" thesis and challenges traditional views of strict Jewish Unitarianism.

Bauckham, Richard. God Crucified: Monotheism and Christology in the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998. 

Relevance: Bauckham argues that early Christian Christology, which identifies Jesus with divine attributes, fits within Second Temple Jewish monotheism, which allowed for a second divine figure (e.g., the "Son of Man" or Wisdom). He emphasizes that New Testament authors applied Yahweh texts to Jesus, supporting the idea of a binitarian framework. This is relevant for showing how the "two Yahwehs" concept aligns with early Christian theology.

Boyarin, Daniel. “The Gospel of the Memra: Jewish Binitarianism and the Prologue to John.” Harvard Theological Review 94:3 (2001): 243-84. 

Relevance: Boyarin’s article is a key contribution, arguing that the Logos theology in John’s Gospel reflects a Jewish binitarian tradition rooted in the Memra (Aramaic for "Word") of the Targums. He posits that Jewish thought in the Second Temple period accommodated a second divine figure, often equated with Wisdom or the Logos, which influenced early Christian depictions of Jesus. This directly supports the notion of a binitarian structure in Jewish theology, akin to the "two Yahwehs" thesis, and challenges the idea that such concepts are inherently non-Jewish or non-monotheistic. HIGHLY recommend.

Boyarin, Daniel. “Two Powers in Heaven; or, The Making of a Heresy.” In The Idea of Biblical Interpretation: Essays in Honor of James L. Kugel, edited by Hindy Najman and Judith R. Newman, 331–370. Leiden: Brill, 2003. 

Relevance: This essay builds on Boyarin’s earlier work and Alan Segal’s foundational study (see below), examining how rabbinic Judaism labeled binitarian ideas as heretical in response to Christian and other sectarian developments. Boyarin traces the "Two Powers in Heaven" concept in early Jewish texts, showing how figures like the "Son of Man" in Daniel 7 were interpreted as a second divine entity. This is highly relevant to the "two Yahwehs" discussion, as it contextualizes the theological debates within Judaism (i.e. “the biblical authors”).

Dunn, James D.G. Christology in the Making: A New Testament Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation. London: SCM Press, 1989. 

Relevance: Dunn examines the development of Christology, critiquing some aspects of binitarianism (e.g., Barker’s ditheism) but acknowledging that Second Temple Judaism included intermediary figures like Wisdom and the Logos. He argues that these figures informed early Christian views of Jesus, though he emphasizes a developmental process rather than a direct "two Yahwehs" model.

Foreman, Matt and Van Dorn, Douglas. The Angel of the LORD: A Biblical, Historical, and Theological Study. Dacono, CO: Waters of Creation Publishing, 2020.

Relevance: Van Dorn and Foreman argue that the "Angel of the Lord" in the Old Testament is a manifestation of God the Son, appearing under titles like the Word, the Name, and the Glory. They highlight early Jewish and Christian interpretations, Reformation, and modern Christian interpretations, including the "two Yahwehs" theology, to support their Christological reading.

Fossum, Jarl E. The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish Concepts of Intermediation and the Origin of Gnosticism. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1985. 

Relevance: Fossum investigates the role of the "Angel of the Lord" and the divine Name in Jewish and Samaritan traditions, arguing that these figures were seen as divine hypostases or second powers alongside God. His work connects these ideas to early Christian Christology and Gnosticism, providing further evidence for binitarianism in Jewish thought.

Gieschen, Charles. Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence. London: Brill Academic, 1998. 

Relevance: Gieschen explores how early Jewish and Christian texts depict divine figures, particularly the "Angel of the Lord," as a second divine personage alongside God. He argues that these angelomorphic traditions in Second Temple Judaism provide a backdrop for early Christology, where Jesus is identified with this second divine figure. Gieschen’s analysis supports the idea of a binitarian framework in Jewish theology, aligning with the "two Yahwehs" concept, though he doesn’t use that exact phrasing. His focus on texts like the Book of Daniel, 1 Enoch, and Philo makes this a foundational text for your query. Obligatory reading for this topic.

Hengel, Martin. The Son of God: The Origin of Christology and the History of Jewish-Hellenistic Religion. Translated by John Bowden. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1976. 

Relevance: Hengel explores how early Christian Christology, particularly the pre-existence of Jesus, draws on Jewish wisdom traditions and intermediary figures like the Logos. He argues that these ideas were rooted in Hellenistic Judaism, supporting the notion of a second divine figure within a monotheistic framework, which aligns with the "two Yahwehs" thesis.

Hurtado, Larry W. One God, One Lord: Early Christian Devotion and Ancient Jewish Monotheism. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1988 (3rd ed., Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015). 

Relevance: Hurtado explores how early Christian devotion to Jesus as a divine figure emerged from Jewish monotheistic traditions, particularly through the concept of a principal agent or second divine figure (e.g., the "Angel of the Lord" or Wisdom). He describes this as a "binitarian pattern of devotion," where Jesus is worshipped alongside God without violating monotheism. This work provides a nuanced view of how binitarianism bridges Jewish and Christian theology.

Newman, Carey C., James R. Davila, and Gladys S. Lewis, eds. The Jewish Roots of Christological Monotheism: Papers from the St. Andrews Conference on the Historical Origins of the Worship of Jesus. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1999. 

Relevance: This collection of essays explores how early Christian worship of Jesus emerged from Jewish traditions of venerating a second divine figure, such as the "Angel of the Lord" or Wisdom. Contributions from scholars like Hurtado and Bauckham make this a key resource for understanding binitarianism and its Jewish roots.

Schäfer, Peter. Two Gods in Heaven: Jewish Concepts of God in Antiquity. Translated by Allison Brown. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020. 

Relevance: Schäfer examines binitarianism in Second Temple Judaism and late antique rabbinic texts, arguing that ideas of a second divine figure (e.g., in Daniel 7, 1 Enoch, and the Dead Sea Scrolls) were not inherently heretical until later rabbinic rejections. He engages with Boyarin’s work, critiquing some aspects while affirming the presence of binitarian ideas in Jewish thought. This book is a direct counter to Barcellos’ claim, showing that such concepts were part of Jewish theology.

Segal, Alan F. Two Powers in Heaven: Early Rabbinic Reports about Christianity and Gnosticism. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1977 (republished by Baylor University Press, 2012). 

Relevance: Segal’s seminal work is the cornerstone of the "Two Powers in Heaven" thesis. He argues that Second Temple Judaism included beliefs in a second divine figure, often identified with the "Angel of the Lord" or the "Son of Man," which were later deemed heretical by rabbinic authorities. Segal’s analysis of texts like Daniel 7, 1 Enoch, and rabbinic polemics provides evidence for a binitarian theology that prefigures Christian Christology. This is a critical resource for understanding the Jewish roots of the "two Yahwehs" concept.

Sommer, Benjamin D. The Bodies of God and the World of Ancient Israel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. 

Relevance: Sommer argues that ancient Israelite religion allowed for multiple divine manifestations or "bodies" of God, including the "Angel of the Lord," which could be seen as a second Yahweh-like figure. His work provides a biblical basis for divine plurality within monotheism, supporting the "two Yahwehs" thesis in a Jewish context.

Van Dorn, Douglas. “The Sons of God, the Nephilim, and Jesus Christ: Why the Supernatural Interpretation of Genesis 6:1-4 Was Deliberately Changed in the Second Century AD and Why It Should Matter to Christians.” Reformed Fringe (Feb 2025).

Relevance: Van Dorn argues that the supernatural interpretation of Genesis 6:1-4, identifying the “sons of God” as angelic beings who produced the Nephilim with human women, was universally accepted in Jewish and early Christian traditions until the second century AD. He contends that rabbinic authorities, motivated by opposition to Christian claims about Jesus as the Messiah and Son of God, deliberately shifted to a naturalistic “sons of the nobility” or “Sethite” interpretation to undermine Christological readings of Old Testament texts. This shift coincided with textual variants (e.g., in Deuteronomy 32:8, Psalm 82:1) and the rejection of “Two Powers in Heaven” theology, which Van Dorn links to efforts to suppress binitarian interpretations supporting Jesus’ divinity. Drawing on early Jewish texts, the Septuagint, and Church Fathers, he posits that these changes were a coordinated anti-Christian polemic, impacting Jewish and Christian exegesis. The article emphasizes the importance of reclaiming the supernatural view for a robust Christian witness, particularly in dialogue with Jewish theology.